Group Processes & Intergroup Relations

 

Advanced Search

Journal Navigation

Journal Home

Subscriptions

Archive

Contact Us

Table of Contents

Sign In to gain access to subscriptions and/or personal tools.
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Free Full Text (Free PDF) Free
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to Saved Citations
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Request Reprints
Right arrow Add to My Marked Citations
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Zetik, D. C.
Right arrow Articles by Stuhlmacher, A. F.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?
Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, Vol. 5, No. 1, 35-52 (2002)
DOI: 10.1177/1368430202005001537
© 2002 SAGE Publications

Goal Setting and Negotiation Performance: A Meta-Analysis

Deborah C. Zetik

DePaul University

Alice F. Stuhlmacher

DePaul University, astuhlma{at}depaul.edu

We review, through meta-analysis, the effects of goals and goal attributes on the outcomes received by negotiators. Despite a long-standing interest in aspirations and goals in negotiation, researchers have not fully integrated aspiration theory and goal setting theory in group activities such as negotiation. Results of 22 research reports indicated that negotiators who held optimal (i.e. specific and challenging) goals consistently achieved higher profits than negotiators with suboptimal or no goals. Goal difficulty had a strong, positive influence on profit outcomes. More difficult goals led to higher outcomes than less difficult goals. The effect of goals was stronger in the cases where (a) the negotiator’s opponent did not have a strong goal, (b) there were rewards for performance, (c) negotiations were not face-to-face, and (d) the negotiator had task experience. Also, as predicted by goal setting theory, no effect was found for participation in goal setting. Additionally, it is proposed that the interactive and interdependent nature of the negotiation task provides grounds for further development of goal setting and aspiration theory.

Key Words: aspiration • bargaining • goal setting • meta-analysis • negotiation

References

  • Ashford, S. J., & Cummings, L. L. (1983). Feedback as an individual resource: Personal strategies of creating information. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 32, 370-398.
  • Barry, B., & Friedman, R. A. (1998). Individual differences in distributive and integrative negotiation: The role of personality and cognitive ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 345-359.[CrossRef]
  • *Bazerman, M. H., Magliozzi, T., & Neale, M. A. (1985). Integrative bargaining in a competitive market. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35, 294-313.[CrossRef]
  • *Blum, W. M. (1992). Effect of the constituent-constituent relationship on the negotiators’ bargaining behavior. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (07), 2646A (UMI No. 940010).
  • *Brett, J. F., Pinkley, R. L., & Jackofsky, E. F. (1996). Alternatives to having a BATNA in dyadic negotiation: The influence of goals, self-efficacy, and alternatives on negotiated outcomes. International Journal of Conflict Management, 7, 121-138.
  • Campbell, D. J., & Furrer, D. M. (1995). Goal setting and competition as determinants of task performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 377-389.
  • Chowdhury, J. (1990). The impact of externally set goals on motivation and performance in the sales force. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (04), 1220A (UMI No. 9219266).
  • *Contini, B. (1966). A value of time in bargaining negotiations: Some experimental evidence. American Economic Review, 56, 374-393.
  • Coombs, C. H., & Avrunin, G. S. (1988). The structure of conflict. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Cropanzano, R., James, K., & Citera, M. (1993). A goal hierarchy model of personality, motivation, and leadership. Research in Organizational Behavior, 15, 267-322.
  • Early, P. C., Northcraft, G. B., Lee, C., & Lituchy, T. R. (1990). Impact of process and outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to task performance. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 87-105.[CrossRef][ISI]
  • Early, P. C., Wojnaroski, P., & Prest, W. (1987). Task planning and energy expended: Exploration of how goals influence performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 107-114.[CrossRef]
  • Erez, M., & Zidon, I. (1984). Effect of goal acceptance on the relationship of goal difficulty to performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 69-78.
  • Fisher, R., Ury, W., & Patton, B. (1991). Getting to yes. (2nd ed.), New York: Penguin.
  • Frank, J. D. (1941). Recent studies of the level of aspiration. Psychological Bulletin, 38, 218-226.[CrossRef]
  • Gist, M. E., Stevens, C. K., & Bavetta, A. G. (1991). Effects of self-efficacy and post-training intervention on the acquisition and maintenance of complex interpersonal skills. Personnel Psychology, 44, 837-861.
  • *Hamner, W. C., & Harnett, D. L. (1974). Goal setting, performance and satisfaction in an interdependent task. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 12, 217-230.[CrossRef]
  • *Hamner, W. C., & Harnett, D. L. (1975). The effects of information and aspiration level on bargaining behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 329-342.[CrossRef]
  • Harkins, S. G., White, P. H., & Utman, C. H. (2000). The role of internal and external sources of evaluation in motivating task performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 100-117.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • *Hathaway, W. A. (1984). The effects of directed versus non-directed goal setting on the process and outcome of purchasing negotiations. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (04), 1191B (UMI No. 8415464).
  • Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Boston, MA: Academic Press.
  • Hollenbeck, J. R., & Klein, H. J. (1987). Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Problems, prospects, and proposals for future research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 212-220.[CrossRef]
  • *Holmes, J. G., Throop, W. F., & Strickland, L. H. (1971). The effects of prenegotiation expectations on the distributive bargaining process. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 582-599.[CrossRef]
  • *Huber, V. L., & Neale, M. A. (1986). Effects of cognitive heuristics and goals on negotiator performance and subsequent goal setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process, 38, 342-365.[CrossRef]
  • *Huber, V. L., & Neale, M. A. (1987). Effects of self-and competitor goals on performance in an interdependent bargaining task. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 197-203.[CrossRef]
  • Johnson, B. T. (1993). DSTAT: Software for the meta-analytic review of research literatures. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Johnson, D. W., Maruyama, G., Johnson, R., Nelson, D., & Skon, D. (1981). Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 47-62.
  • Kahan, J. P. (1968). Effects of level of aspiration in an experimental bargaining situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 154-159.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • *Kimmel, M. J., Pruitt, D. G., Magenau, J. M., Konar-Goldband, E., & Carnevale, J. D. (1980). Effects of trust, aspiration, and gender on negotiation tactics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 9-22.[CrossRef]
  • Latham, G. P., & Baldes, J. J. (1975). The ‘practical significance’ of Locke’s theory of goal setting. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 122-124.[CrossRef]
  • Latham, G. P., Erez, M., & Locke, E. A. (1988). Resolving scientific disputes by the joint design of crucial experiments by the antagonists: Application to the Erez-Latham dispute regarding participation in goal setting. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 753-772.[CrossRef]
  • Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (1979). Goal setting— A motivational technique that works!Organizational Dynamics, 15, 68-80.
  • Lewin, K., Dembo, T., Festinger, L., & Sears, P. S. (1944). Level of aspiration. In J. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the Behavior Disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 333-378), New York: Ronald.
  • Lim, R. G. (1997). Overconfidence in negotiation revisited. International Journal of Conflict Management, 8, 52-79.
  • Locke, E. A., Chah, D. O., Harrison, S., & Lustgarten, N. (1989). Separating the effects of goal specificity from goal level. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43, 270-287.[CrossRef]
  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  • Locke, E. A., Latham, G. P., & Erez, M. (1988). The determinants of goal commitment. Academy of Management Review, 13, 23-39.
  • Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance: 1969-1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 125-152.[CrossRef][ISI]
  • MacMurray, B. K., & Lawler, E. J. (1986). Level-of-aspiration theory and initial stance in bargaining. Representative Research in Psychology, 16, 35-44.
  • McAlister, L., Bazerman, M. H., & Fader, P. (1986). Power and goal setting in channel negotiations. Journal of Marketing Research, 23, 228-236.[CrossRef]
  • Mento, A. J., Steel, R. P., & Karren, R. J. (1987). A meta-analytic study of the effects of goal setting on task performance: 1966-1984. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39, 52-83.[CrossRef]
  • *Neale, M. A., & Bazerman, M. H. (1985). The effect of externally set goals on reaching integrative agreements in competitive markets. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 19-32.
  • *Neale, M. A., & Northcraft, G. B. (1986). Experts, amateurs, and refrigerators: Comparing expert and amateur negotiators in a novel task. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 305-317.[CrossRef]
  • *Northcraft, G. B., Neale, M. A., & Early, P. C. (1994). Joint effects of assigned goals and training on negotiator performance. Human Performance, 7, 257-272.[CrossRef]
  • Ostmann, A. (1992). The interaction of aspiration levels and the social field in experimental bargaining. Journal of Economic Psychology, 13, 233-261.
  • *Polzer, J. T., & Neale, M. A. (1995). Constraints or catalysts? Reexamining goal setting within the context of negotiation. Human Performance, 8, 3-26.
  • *Pruitt, D. G., Carnevale, J. D., Ben-Yoav, O., Nochajski, T. H., & Van Slyck, M. R. (1983). In R. Tietz (Ed.), Aspiration levels in bargaining and economic decision making. New York: Springer-Verlag.
  • *Pruitt, D. G., & Lewis, S. A. (1975). Development of integrative solutions in bilateral negotiation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 621-633.[CrossRef]
  • Raiffa, H. (1982). The art and science of negotiation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Siegal, S. (1957). Level of aspiration and decision making. Psychological Review, 64, 253-262.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Siegal, S. & Fouraker, L. E. (1960). Bargaining and group decision-making: Experiments in bilateral monopoly. New York: McGraw Hill.
  • *Stevens, C. K., Bavetta, A. G., & Gist, M. E. (1993). Gender differences in the acquisition of salary negotiation skills: The role of goals, self-efficacy, and perceived control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 723-735.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Stuhlmacher, A. F., Gillespie, T. L., & Champagne, M. V. (1998). The impact of time pressure in negotiation: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Conflict Management, 9, 97-116.
  • Stuhlmacher, A. F., & Stevenson M. K. (1997). Using policy modeling to describe the negotiation process. Group Decision and Negotiation, 6, 315-336.
  • Stuhlmacher, A. F., & Walters, A. E. (1999). Gender differences in negotiation outcome: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 52, 653-677.
  • Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley.
  • Thomas, K. W. (1992). Conflict and negotiation processes in organizations. In M. Dunnette and L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 651-717). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
  • Thompson, L. (1990). An examination of naive and experienced negotiators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 82-90.[CrossRef]
  • Tubbs, M. E. (1986). Goal setting: A meta-analytic examination of the empirical evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 474-483.[CrossRef]
  • Tutzauer, F., & Roloff, M. E. (1988). Communication processes leading to integrative agreements. Communication Research, 15, 360-380.[Abstract]
  • *Wall, J. A. (1984). Mediation: The effects of mediator proposals, number of issues, and altered negotiation aspirations. Journal of Management, 10, 293-304.
  • Walton, R. E., & McKersie, R. B. (1965). A behavioral theory of labor negotiations: An analysis of a social interaction system. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Walters, A. E., Stuhlmacher, A. F., & Meyer, L. L. (1998). Gender and negotiator competitiveness: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 76, 1-29.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • *White, S. B., & Neale, M. A. (1994). The role of negotiator aspirations and settlement expectancies in bargaining outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 57, 303-317.[CrossRef]
  • *White, S. B., Valley, K. L., Bazerman, M. H., Neale, M. A., & Peck, S. R. (1994). Alternative models of price behavior in dyadic negotiations: Market prices, reservation prices, and negotiator aspirations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 57, 430-447.[CrossRef]
  • Whyte, G., & Sebenius, J. K. (1997). The effect of multiple anchors on anchoring in individual and group judgment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 75-85.
  • Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory of organizational management. Academy of Management Review, 14, 361-384.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Yukl, G. A., & Latham, G. P. (1978). Interrelations among employee participation, individual differences, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, goal instrumentality, and performance. Personnel Psychology, 31, 305-323.

Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us   Add to Digg Digg   Add to Reddit Reddit   Add to Technorati Technorati    What's this?


This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Group Processes Intergroup RelationsHome page
W. Steinel, A. E. Abele, and C. K. W. De Dreu
Effects of Experience and Advice on Process and Performance in Negotiations
Group Processes Intergroup Relations, October 1, 2007; 10(4): 533 - 550.
[Abstract] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Free Full Text (Free PDF) Free
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to Saved Citations
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Request Reprints
Right arrow Add to My Marked Citations
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Zetik, D. C.
Right arrow Articles by Stuhlmacher, A. F.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati  
What's this?